الأربعاء، 20 مايو 2009
البحث الاجرائي ( العملي) في التربية
أهم مكونات وخطوات البحث الإجرائي ( العملي )
أنواع البحث الإجرائي ( العملي )
أهداف البحث الإجرائي ووظائفه
- خصائص البحث الإجرائي -
مقدمة عن البحث الإجرائي ( البحث العملي )
التمييز بين البحث الإجرائي والبحث العلمي الأكاديمي
تعريف البحث الإجرائي ACTION RESEARCH
إن دوافع التفكير بدور المعلم كباحث ناجمة عن الفجوة الواضحة بين الباحثين التربويين والمستفيدين من نتائج تلك البحوث، ومنهم المعلمون وقد تعزى هذه الفجوة لعدة أسباب:
يعمل الباحثون التربيون في مؤسسات التعليم العالي ويقومون بإجراء البحوث لأغراض الترقية وبالتالي فهي بحوث تعالج مشكلات تربوية ليست بالضرورة ضمن الاحتياجات البحثية المباشرة للمعلمين.
تنشر البحوث التربوية في مجلات متخصصة وتلك المجلات تخاطب المتخصصين الذين يمتلكون مهارات بحثية متقدمة، مما يقلل من إمكانية استفادة الميدان التربوي منه خصوصا المعلمون.
يميل الباحثون التربويون إلى البحوث النظرية أو التطبيقية العامة أكثر منها إلى التطبيقية الخاصة أو المباشرة كما يكون الاهتمام منصبا على تطبيق معايير النشر.
معظم الأبحاث تنشر باللغة الانجليزية مما يشكل عقبة نحو الكثير من المعلمين.
ما مواصفات البحث الذي يقع ضمن إمكانيات المعلم؟قد يكون المعلم باحثا مبتدئا تنمو مهارته باستمرار وقدرته على إعداد بحث جيد قد تزداد رغبته في القيام بدوره كباحث. ولعل أبرز أنواع البحوث التصاقا بالمعلم ما يعرف بالبحوث الإجرائية أو البحوث الموجهة للعمل (Action Research).
ما هو البحث الإجرائي؟
البحث الإجرائي دراسة منظمة لممارساتي الذاتية (كمعلم) بهدف تحسين تلك الممارسة، ويمكن القول بان البحث الإجرائي يحاول إحياء شخص الباحث في داخل المعلم والإجابة عن السؤال " كيف أستطيع أن أحسن ممارستي" ولعل الخطوات التي يتبعها المعلم لإجراء هذا النوع من الاستقصاء قد تتلخص بالأفعال التالية: خطط، تفذ، لاحظ، تأمل. مما يؤدي إلى التطور الذاتي في المهنة.
ما مجالات البحث الإجرائي وما منهجيته
يمكن أن تتعدد مجالات البحث الإجرائي في التربية ومن تلك المجالات:
اساليب التدريس
المختبرات
الطالب
المنهاج
الكتاب المدرسي
الاشراف التربوي
الوسائل التعليمية
التقويم والامتحانات
لا تختلف خطوات البحث الإجرائي عن خطوات المنهج العلمي والتي تتلخص بما يلي:
الشعور بالمشكلة
تحديد المشكلة
صياغة الفرضيات
وضع التصميم لاختبار الفرضيات
جمع المعلومات والبيانات
استخلاص النتائج
كيف يختلف البحث الإجرائي عن الأنواع الأخرى من البحث العلمي؟
المشكلة التي يختارها الباحث تكون مشكلة واقعية يعاني منها في محيط عمله.
العينة التي يطبق عليها البحث تكون مقصودة
يخفف من إجراءات الصدق والثبات لأدوات البحث
يركز البحث على عرض الإجراءات بطريقة تفصيلية بحيث يستفيد منها بقية العاملين في الميدان.
ما مواصفات البحث الذي يقع ضمن إمكانيات المعلم؟
ما هو البحث الإجرائي؟
البحث الإجرائي دراسة منظمة لممارساتي الذاتية (كمعلم) بهدف تحسين تلك الممارسة، ويمكن القول بان البحث الإجرائي يحاول إحياء شخص الباحث في داخل المعلم والإجابة عن السؤال " كيف أستطيع أن أحسن ممارستي" ولعل الخطوات التي يتبعها المعلم لإجراء هذا النوع من الاستقصاء قد تتلخص بالأفعال التالية: خطط، تفذ، لاحظ، تأمل. مما يؤدي إلى التطور الذاتي في المهنة.
ما مجالات البحث الإجرائي وما منهجيتهيمكن أن تتعدد مجالات البحث الإجرائي في التربية ومن تلك المجالات:
اساليب التدريس
المختبرات
الطالب
المنهاج
الكتاب المدرسي
الاشراف التربوي
الوسائل التعليمية
التقويم والامتحانات
لا تختلف خطوات البحث الإجرائي عن خطوات المنهج العلمي والتي تتلخص بما يلي:
الشعور بالمشكلة
تحديد المشكلة
صياغة الفرضيات
وضع التصميم لاختبار الفرضيات
جمع المعلومات والبيانات
استخلاص النتائج
كيف يختلف البحث الإجرائي عن الأنواع الأخرى من البحث العلمي؟
المشكلة التي يختارها الباحث تكون مشكلة واقعية يعاني منها في محيط عمله.
العينة التي يطبق عليها البحث تكون مقصودة
يخفف من إجراءات الصدق والثبات لأدوات البحث
يركز البحث على عرض الإجراءات بطريقة تفصيلية بحيث يستفيد منها بقية بقية العاملين في الميدان.
أثر تطبيق الجدولة اللية على أداء الدارة الكاديمية في كلية عفت
تهدف الدراسة إلى بيان أثر استخدام أساليب بحوث العمليات في الجدولة على
زيادة فعالية إدارة العملية التعليمية في الجامعات والكليات السعودية ٬ من خلل
تطبيق نظام الجدولة اللي في كلية عفت وتوضيح أثر استخدامه في رفع درجة
ر ضا أعضاء هيئة التدر يس وتخف يض الو قت والج هد اللزم ين للقيام بعمل ية
سمت الدراسة إلى عدة ف صول كا لتي: الف صل الول: اشتمل Q الجدولة. و قد ق
على الطار النظري للدرا سة ومشكلة وأهداف الدرا سة. الف صل الثا ني: تناول
دراسة نظرية عن أساليب بحوث العمليات الحديثة التي لها علقة بتقنيات الذكاء
ا لصطناعي ٬ بالضا فة إلى شرح تف صيلي ل كل من الخواريزم الج يني وال بحث
المحظور. الفصل الثالث: تناول شرحا لمفهوم الجدولة وتطبيقاتها المختلفة ٬ مع
توضيح مفهوم الجدولة الكاديمية وكيفية استخدام أساليب بحوث العمليات في
ن بعض البحاث التي تمت في هذا المجال. الفصل ] تطبيقات الجدولة ٬ كما تضم
Action الرا بع: تناول شر حا لمنهج ية ال بحث ٬ و هو أ سلوب "ال بحث العملي
الفصل الخامس: تضمن تطبيق أحد نظم دعم القرار " نظام جدولة . " Research
الكاديميين اللي" في عمل ية الجدولة في كل ية ع فت. الفصل السادس: تناول
تحل يل فرضيات الدراسة. أ ما الف صل ال سابع: فشمل مرحلة النتائج والتو صيات
التي تم التوصل إليها وأهمها: • ظهور مشكلة الجدولة الكاديمية في المنظمات
التعليم ية ال تي ت ستخدم ا لسلوب اليدوي ٬ م ثل كل ية ع فت ؛ إذ تتطلب عمل ية
الجدولة اليدوية الكثير من الوقت والجهد من الموظفة المسئولة ٬ كما أن الجدول
بدر جة كبيرة بال نسبة ل كل من الدارة وأعضاء هيئة التدر يس. • g ي عد مرضيا Q ل
ض الو قت والج هد اللزم ين لعداد الجدول ] ا ستخدام نظام الجدولة اللي خ ف
وإجراء التعديلت. • زيادة درجة رضا أعضاء هيئة التدر يس بتطبيق نظام الجدولة
اللي. • انخفاض نسبة الخطأ في الجداول الناتجة عن استخدام نظام الجدولة
اللي ٬ بالضا فة إلى زيادة كفاءة ا ستخدام القاعات ادرا سية. و قد أ عقب نتائج
الدرا سة مجمو عة من التو صيات م نها: • إمكان ية تطو ير النظام بإضا فة القيود
الخا صة بكل ية ع فت ٬ ال تي تم التو صل إل يها من خلل ال تطبيق العملي. •
الستفادة من المعلومات المتوفرة عن كل ية ع فت في إجراء المز ي د من البحاث
الم ستقبلية ٬ لشراء أو تطو ير نظام جدولة آلي خاص بالكل ية. • ضرورة اهتمام
المنظمات التعليم ية بإجراء المز ي د من البحاث حول ا ستخدام أ ساليب بحوث
العمليات في تحسين عملية الجدولة الكاديمية لرفع كفاءة العمليات الدارية في
المنظمات التعليم ية. • ضرورة الهتمام بإجراء المز ي د من الدراسات حول ميك نة
عمل ية الجدولة ب صفة عا مة ٬ ل ما ل ها من أ ثر على فعال ية الداء في المنظمات
المختل فة. • ر بط الدرا سة النظر ية بالوا قع الفعلي في مجال بحوث العمليات ٬
وذلك بدرا سة حالت من الوا قع وال تطبيق عل يها با ستخدام أ سلوب ال بحث
العملي. • تشجيع ترجمة الكتب والدوريات في مجال الجدولة.
تطوير مهارات البحث العلمي والعملي بالمستقلة
ويهدف مشروع تطوير مهارات البحث العلمي الذي تقوم بتنفيذه هيئة التعليم من خلال وحدة تطوير مهارات البحث العلمي- الى تعزيز التفكير النقدي، وحل المشكلات، والمهارات البحثية لدى الطلاب، كما يهدف في الوقت نفسه الى تحسن وتطوير مهارات المعلمين وكفاءتهم سواء فيما يتعلق بتوجيه نشاط البحث العلمي الذي يقوم به الطلاب،أو اجراء أبحاثهم التربوية. حيث يعتبر أحد الأهداف الأساسية للمشروع تعزيز قدرات المعلمين على ارشاد الطلاب فيما يتعلق بالأبحاث القائمة على معايير المناهج الوطنية، بالاضافة الى توسيع الفرص المتاحة أمام الطلاب لإجراء البحث العلمي في مجالات أخرى يفضلها الطالب، كما يهدف الى تدريب المعلمين على مناهج البحث العملي action research بحيث يتمكنون من بحث ومناقشة القضايا الهامة في مدارسهم واستخدام البيانات والبراهين و لإثراء أساليب التدريس والسياسة التربوية.
تشكلت اللجنة برئاسة المستشار التربوي لهيئة التعليم السيد ستيف باتن، وعضوية كل السادة:
د.عامر السعدي – مدير مشروع الصندوق القطري للبحث العلمي.
د. حمد الهمامي – مدير مكتب اليونسكو بالدوحة.
د. ماري كيلليت- مدير مركز أبحاث الأطفال بالجامعة المفتوحة – المملكة المتحدة)
د.أحمد الطيبي – أستاذ طب الأطفال (كلية وايل كورنيل)
د. أشفق بينغالي – عضو هيئة التدريس (جامعة تكساس ايه آند ام)
د. دودلي رينولدز – أستاذ مساعد- (جامعة كارنيجي ميلون)
د. نافذ عليان - خبير (وزارة المالية)
د. براق سعيد (وزارة الطاقة والصناعة)
د. نانسي آلن منسق برنامج ماجستير القيادة التربوية بجامعة قطر.
السيد عجلان العنزي ( رئيس مجلس أمناء مدينة خليفة الابتدائية المستقلة للبنات)
منى الأنصاري صاحبة ترخيص مدرسة أم القرى النموذجية المستقلة
وفي هذا الصدد قالت الأستاذة صباح الهيدوس مديرة هيئة التعليم: " ان هذا المشروع يأتي تنفيذاً لتوجيهات صاحبة السمو الشيخة موزة بنت ناصر المسند حرم سمو الأمير المفدى ، نائب المجلس الأعلى للتعليم بشأن نشر ثقافة البحث العلمي، وتطوير استراتيجيات للبحث العلمي في مدارس الدولة. وأن الهيئة قامت بالفعل بانشاء وحدة تطوير مهارات البحوث في شهر أغسطس الماضي لتنفيذ المشروع . أما بالنسبة للجنة التسيير، فمهمتها الاشراف المستمر على إعداد وتنفيذ المشروع، و تقديم المشورة والنصح للهيئة ، والعمل على ضمان الجودة. حيث تضم اللجنة نخبة من الخبراء الذين يهتمون بالبحث العلمي في شتى المجالات كالتعليم والثقافة والصحة والقطاع المالي والصناعي."
وفي بداية الاجتماع استعرض الدكتور جين جونجسما مستشار هيئة التعليم ومنسق وحدة تطوير مهارات البحوث بالهيئة أهداف المشروع ، وما تم انجازه حتى الآن. كما تحدث السيد باتن عن أدوار ومسؤوليات لجنة التسيير.
ودارت المناقشات بين أعضاء اللجنة الحاضرين حول المنطلقات النظرية للمشروع كما يلي:
ضرورة تعريف مصطلح البحث العلمي وحدوده، وما يترتب عليه ذلك بالنسبة لأهداف المشروع.
أهمية الاتفاق على أن البحث العلمي لا يعنى فقط باللغة الانجليزية والعلوم والرياضيات وانما يمتد ليشمل العلوم الاجتماعية والدراسات العربية والقضايا الأخرى.
احتياج القطاع الصناعي الى كوادر أتمت تعليمها على مستوى عال، ممن تطورت لديهم ميول ايجابية من حيث تطوير مهارات البحث العلمي.
ضرورة ضمان أن تصبح مهارات البحث العلمي جزءاً متمماً ومكملاً من المناهج الدراسية، و أن الطلاب قد تعلموا استراتيجيات مرتبطة بمناهج البحث العلمي الفاعل.
ضرورة وضع مشاريع عملية صغيرة بحيث يكون عائدها ناجحاً، وأهمية الادارة الجيدة للتوقعات في المراحل الأولى للمشروع.
أهمية وضع النماذج والضوابط التي يمكن اجراء البحث العلمي في اطارها.
ضرورة الاهتمام بقدرات الأطفال على البحث العلمي، وعدم التقليل من شأنها.
ضرورة اعتماد التدريس على المباديء الثلاثة الأساسية للبحث العلمي الفعال، على البحث العلمي أن يتصف بالشك وأن يكون منهجياً واخلاقياً.
أهمية تشجيع الطلاب على العمل على البيانات الخام، بدلاً من التركيز ببساطة على البيانات المعالجة أو الجاهز. وتشجيع مهارات التفكير النقدي.
احتياجات المعلمين من برامج التطوير المهني المناسبة واستراتيجيات حفز المعلمين للمشاركة الفعالة في المشروع، وعلاقة ذلك بالمعايير المهنية للمعلمين وقادة المدارس التي تم تدشينها مؤخراً. حيث تتضمن برامج التطوير المهني للمعلمين نموذجاً تدريبياً يشجع المعلمين وقادة المدارس على إجراء الأبحاث العملية كجزء أساسي في جميع البرامج.
و في نهاية الاجتماع، تم الاتفاق على أن تقوم اللجنة في اجتماعها القادم بمناقشة الخطة الاستراتيجية التي يقوم بإعدادها الدكتور جين جونجسما. وعلى أن تقوم الدكتورة ماري كيلليت استشارية وحدة تطوير مهارات البحث العلمي بهيئة التعليم بإعداد عرض تقديمي عن طبيعة عمل مركز أبحاث الأطفال بالجامعة المفتوحة – المملكة المتحدة الذي تقوم بإدارته.
يذكر أن لجنة تسيير مشروع تطوير مهارات البحث العلمي المنبثقة عن هيئة التعليم منوط بها تقديم الإشراف على المشروع النصح الحيادي والتغذية الراجعة والتوجيه لكل من مديرة هيئة التعليم ووحدة تطوير مهارات البحوث. وأن تكون مصدر قوة ودعم والهام لجميع موظفي هيئة التعليم والمعلمين والطلبة. والتأكد من قدرة هيئة التعليم على توفير الرؤية والاستراتيجيات والقيادة اللازمة لإيجاد مستويات تطوير منهجية للمهارات البحثية والمحافظة على هذه المستويات عبر جميع الجوانب الخاصة بالمناهج الدراسية بدءاً من رياض الأطفال حتى الصف الثاني عشر، بالاضافة الى ايجاد قنوات للتواصل بين المعنيين العاملين في حقلي التعليم والبحوث من ناحية، و معلمي وطلبة المدارس المستقلة من جهة أخرى.
Action Research Plan
The "Itch":
Addressing the extended time that some learners experience waiting for an appropriate tutor in the 1:1 volunteer programs.
Aspects of the Issue: Why does this problem exist?
Wait-times for appropriate tutor
Labeling of learners
Tutor expectation vs. learner expectation
Tutor experience
Tutor training and orientation
Time availability
"Type" of learner varies from year to year, as does the expertise and experience of the available tutors.
Possible Interventions:
Targeted recruitment
Trial tutor matches
Tutor training opportunities which focus on teaching learners with "barriers"
Better assessment of learners’ needs
Ongoing communication with learners and tutors (e.g. progress reports)
Explore other options (e.g. small groups)
Chosen Intervention:
Training opportunities for tutors which focus on strategies for teaching learners with "barriers".
Planning Phase:
Explore training possibilities for tutors about barriers to learning and strategies to address them.
Dartmouth Literacy Network staff to brainstorm about existing barriers and location of available supports and information (e.g. literature search, e-mailing other networks)
Review intake process (wording of forms, confidentiality etc.)
Ask for input from learners and tutors regarding possible barriers (e.g. hold 1:1 interviews or focus groups)
Access resources (e.g. fact sheets, presentations, PD opportunities)
Follow up
Timeline:
April
Start brainstorming
May/ June/ September
Research services/resources
June/ September
Set up training for the fall 2006
October – December
Hold training sessions
January – June
Reflection and feedback from learners and tutors
Materials:
InternetPhoneComputerLiteratureMeeting space
Administrator Approval:
From Executive Director/Board of Directors
Consent:
Not really applicable because training is being given to tutors optionally. However, for informational purposes a notice looking for input on useful training opportunities could be printed in Newsletter.
Baseline:
Learning barriers are causing extended wait times for some tutors and learners. Find # of learners waiting for 2 months or longer, before "intervention" and after "intervention".
Success:
If there is a reduction in the length of wait time for tutors and learners to be matched from 3+ months to 1 month maximum.
Triangulation:
Questionnaire – after training
Focus Groups with tutors and with learners
Reflective journal
Action Research Plan: Overview
Participatory Action Research
The origins of PAR can be traced back to Lewin (1946). His ideas can be seen as an attempt to bridge the gap between science and practice. He complained “research which produces nothing but books is not sufficient“ Lewin (1953, 280). This statement expressed very well the researcher‘s own feelings during the review phase of the PRAP programme. It was a regional research programme that had practically no impact on farmers as the ultimate beneficiaries of development efforts. Thus, looking for ways to bring together science and practice became a key issue of this study.
Lewin (1946) described action research as advancing in a spiral of steps, each of which comprises planning, action, and evaluation of that action. In this step-by-step approach, insights into complex situations are obtained. With each step insights gradually build up. The research process is determined by stages of information gathering, planning of actions, evaluation of those actions and re-planning for a new cycle in the light of the insights that were gained in the previous cycle of the spiral. After re-planning the process
Action research and users' needs
One of the recurring themes within information science is the application of research results to professional practice. In calling for research proposals, practitioners often seem to demand something which will show usable results quickly, since they perceive their problems as essentially practical. They sometimes find it difficult to grasp that if the research is intended to be fundamental it often cannot be carried out quickly and may not necessarily have practical results.
The difficulty that arises for the researcher is that, on the one hand, the practitioner wants applicable results, and, on the other hand, research funders generally want 'sound research'. At times the researcher is caught in the middle, trying to produce proposals to satisfy both. When research results fail to make any significant impact on the world of practice the response of funding agencies (not only in our field but in others too) is to stress the need for 'more effective dissemination'.
Dissemination of research
The proposition that dissemination of research results will increase the probability of application sounds reasonable. However, the process appears to be ill-defined and uncertain and the proposition can be doubted where the aims of research are basic rather than applied. It seems to us that there is confusion between the application of research results in science and their application in practice. We will explore this distinction further by reference to Figures 1 to 3.
In Figure 1 we have tried to illustrate the processes which are assumed to occur in disseminating research results using 'the scientific method model'. The key fact to bear in mind here is that, initially at least, the results of scientific research are applied in science itself rather than in any other field of practice. That is, results are used to support, confirm or deny the propositions of formal scientific theory. The use of science in technology or engineering may come rather later: witness, for example, the discovery of the properties of semiconductors in the 1920s and their application in the development of the transistor in 1948.
Figure 1 also suggests that, because scientific research finds its application within science, there will be a high probability that virtually continuous attention will be given to the same issues over long periods of time.
Figure 1: The scientific research dissemination model
In information science, however, the research we are involved in is usually applied research: that is, it is related to problem-solving in the real world. (This is not to deny the possibility of a basic science of information but at present anything basic in our field appears to belong firmly within the bounds of some other discipline and information science takes on more and more the appearance of a multi-discipline). Almost always, too, our research is carried out in a real organizational world in which the application of research results necessarily involves some degree of organizational change.
If we assume that dissemination alone can bring about the necessary degree of organizational change then presumably we have in mind a process something like that outlined in Figure 2. The improbability of this actually happening on any large scale is so glaringly obvious that we have chosen to show it by using a broken line. The reason for the improbability is to be found in the box 'change in manager's view of organization': in other words, a change in attitudes is necessary, and social psychologists are fully aware that attitudes are deeply rooted and difficult to change. The force of a research finding would have to be so overwhelming that not only would the need for change be recognised but the will to change would be stimulated.
Figure 2: Organizational implementation of research
Action research - an alternative to dissemination
If we reject the notion that dissemination of results can work in this miracle way what is the alternative? One possibility which has been widely applied in many fields over recent years goes under the rather dramatic name of 'action research'. (Clark, 1972; Foster, 1972). Again, the process can be explained best by reference to Figure 3. This figure is rather more complex partly because the process is probably really more complex but also because it is rather better defined than the 'dissemination' model.
Figure 3: The action research model
The fundamental differences between 'basic' research on the scientific method model and 'action research' can be seen clearly in this diagram. First, defining researchable problems is a collaborative process involving practitioners and researchers. Secondly, the research is problem-focussed (although the data may be relevant to basic research issues); and thirdly, the process has application and evaluation built in through the experimental innovation stage.
Generally, action research is presented as a form of organizational problem-solving in which the external researcher plays the role of consultant. (The field of organization development is one which uses this model, for example, French and Bell, 1973) . Clearly, however, this is not the only possibility and in the first project we shall describe, the process was what we shall call 'researcher-led'. By this we mean that the researchers were convinced that communication (and information) problems existed in the organizations concerned but that, in general, they would not be recognised as such by members of the organizations. This led the researchers to find settings in which to carry out action research and in doing so to demonstrate that their initial assumption about the existence of communication problems was correct.
This last point has a bearing on the difficulties likely to be faced by a researcher trying to negotiate entry to an organization to carry out action research. Some of the likely difficulties could be summarized as;
the problem postulated by the researcher may not exist, or it may be the surface effect of more deeply-rooted problems. If this is not detected before the work commences, the researcher may be faced with issues and difficulties for which s/he is totally unprepared;
a variation of this is that the problem may not be recognised as a problem by the relevant management staff;
the researcher may believe that the source of the problem lies in the organization but management may think that it lies in the environment or in some controlling body;
the concern of the researcher, in presenting his perception of organizational problems, may be in research as an academic activity: it may be difficult to negotiate, therefore, if s/he fails to realize that the manager may be more concerned with organizational survival and growth;
acceptance of the researcher's ideas may be a management ploy, a move in a personal power-game, etc., rather than a genuine recognition that the problems outlined are real;
key individuals may seek to direct the research towards the justification of decisions already taken. (Based upon Foster, 1972).
Action research and Project INISS
Project INISS was planned as an action research project from the beginning and three stages were envisaged:
a period of data-collection through structured observation in social services departments, which would give the researchers insights into the day-to-day functioning of the organization, as well as allowing the development of research hypotheses (see Wilson and Streatfield, 1977);
a stage of structured interviews to allow for the collection of a greater amount of data to test research hypotheses (see Wilson, Streatfield, and Mullings, 1979);
a period of experimental implementation of innovations in information services following upon the feedback of data from stages one and two. The choice of innovations would be made in consultation with departmental management and field staff (see Wilson and Streatfield, 1982).
In spite of a short gap in the duration of the project, which was the result in a change in funding organization after the interviewing phase (from British Library Research and Development to Department of Health and Social Security), the three phases detailed above were followed and the process followed the model in Figure 3, allowing for the fact that the whole project was 'research-led'.
It should be noted that the 'innovations' which were implemented were in no sense 'novel' to information workers: the novelty lay in the fact that virtually any information service was a novelty in the kinds of organizations in which the work was done. Initially, the funding agency (DHSS) was presented with a menu of almost thirty ideas for improving communication and information flow at all organizational levels. We were advised to focus our efforts upon the fieldwork level (that is, the level at which service is given to clients), and, as a result, the list was reduced to eight innovations. Following discussions with a number of departments (some of which had participated in the work from the beginning of the project) these innovations were eventually applied in a total of eighteen locations (area offices) in seven social services departments in three types of local authority: Shire County, Metropolitan District, and London Borough.
The innovations were:
in-service training courses in communication and information handling (see Streatfield, Clark, and Hill, 1980);
the development of local information collections relying upon organizational information and material from voluntary agencies, designed to be low-cost, easily- maintained collections;
collections of monograph literature, supplied to area offices either by the local county library service or the department's own research library service (see Streatfield and Pritchard, 1981); an index to expertise;
more effective journal provision;
an abstract bulletin service (see Streatfield and Pritchard, 1981.).
assistance with the evaluation of a staff information bulletin; and
the provision of background papers for in-service training courses.
Clearly, there is rather more work involved here than can be presented in detail in a paper such as this and we will concentrate on our general conclusions as they related to the usefulness of the action research mode. Anyone wishing to have more detailed information on any particular innovation is invited to contact the authors.
Conclusions from the innovation phase of Project INISS
The conclusions of the innovation phase can be set out as follows:
1. Genuine collaboration with those directly affected by the innovation is absolutely essential. In one particular application it was clear that the area officer developed an 'instant enthusiasm' for organising information collections which was not recognised as a passing phase by the higher management or the researchers. Consequently, when her initial commitment to the idea fell away this was reflected in the attitudes of other members of the area staff who were used to these sudden bursts of enthusiasm. This innovation was markedly less successful in this office than it was in another department.
2. Genuine collaboration in defining the research problem is also important even with a 'researcher-led' programme. For example, the research team had originally intended to explore methods of providing information support for problem-solving groups such as internal working parties. This idea was transformed at the initiative of the host department (with the full agreement of the researchers) into broader support for in-service training courses).
3. Support from the local area management is essential. Again, in another test of the information collection innovation, the local area director was very enthusiastic (he had been one of our original observation subjects). He provided space, organized part-time manpower support and generally encouraged his staff to make use of the collection. In other innovations, also, where senior management were responsive to our ideas and where they believed benefits would flow to the organization, the task of introducing an innovation was made much easier.
4. A user group which is apparently difficult to motivate to use information (social workers) will respond to the provision of information services at the workplace. Both the book collections and the information collections were used (in different ways, and with different degrees of intensity) in departments where long-distance use of central facilities had been virtually zero.
5. To be useful the information provided must relate to the current problems or issues of interest to the recipient.
6. It is possible to bring about sufficient organization change through action research to enable innovations to be adopted (or for other innovations to be adopted on the basis of lessons learned), after the experimental period. This can be achieved if the innovations are effectively monitored and evaluated and are seen by organizational staff and management to address problems of significance to the organization. Perhaps the most telling illustration of this was given to the authors after the conclusion of the project. A research officer reported that the abstract bulletin innovation had been virtually the only information service to survive drastic cuts in his budget. In fact, the service was now being provided to all area offices in the authority and the resources available were being used to buy more subscriptions to the bulletin (Social Work Information Bulletin) rather than to buy books or new journal subscriptions.
7. One of the most effective ways in which to bring about an awareness of communication and information problems and a readiness to accept innovation is through training. In two authorities we organized training courses, in association with the departments ' training sections. These have been described elsewhere (Streatfield, Wilson, and Clark, 1981) , but the conclusions from the evaluation are worth repeating
Action Design: Putting Together Know Why and Know How
A new, consulting-like, human resources (HR) process based on variable payments by target fulfillment and performance was set up. Also training as a goal of the annual planning process was a novelty for the former administration area. Capacity planning, job valuations and other classical HR tools never used before for accountants aimed at professionalizing tabor relations. This new instrumentarium produced fears and resistance among workers and middle management: many had the intuition that the old industrial system would disappear and with it, status quo, privileges and even jobs. The first fear proved right, but the second was false. Nevertheless, the various forms of resistance, passivity and other forms of blocking were the primary research material that allowed us to find out how the actual system worked.
The balanced scorecard, a tool to measure process performance, organizational development and to link both parameters to financial performance was a first attempt to involve workers in projects. As a participation project, it clearly failed, but it revealed the patterns to be used later in PAR-projects, especially concerning the use of a worker-close language and a worker close-activity. The issue of process efficiency was a key observing point for analyzing the contribution of accounting processes to the overall performance of the car-selling business.
Observations and data gathered in both projects nourished the ethnographic research and produced experience for the action process. Both instruments acted also as an organizational frame for linking the research and action plan.
Problem Solving Research / Action-Research
In terms of solving problems in the world of education, however, there is one form of research that is pre-eminently suited to solving those problems where there "is some discrepancy between an educational practice and the expectations in terms of which the practice was undertaken" (Carr & Kemmis 1986 p 110).
This form of research is action-research.
Action-research is a form of problem solving based on increasing knowledge through observation and reflection, then following this with a deliberate intervention intended to improve practice.
There are many definitions of action-research to be found in the literature, perhaps one of the most useful is provided by Oberg & McCutcheon (1987) who define action-research as "any systematic inquiry, large or small, conducted by professionals and focusing on some aspects of their practice in order to find out more about it, and eventually to act in ways they see as better or more effective". (Oberg & McCutcheon 1987 p 117.)
Developing Oberg & McCutcheon's definition of action-research, educational action-research can be said to be "any inquiry teachers undertake to understand and improve their own practice" (McCutcheon & Jung 1990 p 144).
Attractive as this simple definition might be, it does not specify what methods are acceptable or appropriate for such inquiry. Such specification is needed in order to avoid the pitfall of educational action-research being regarded as nothing more than writing down what a good teacher does anyway.
A definition of educational action-research that makes it explicit that a systematic discipline of strategic inquiry must be followed, while at the same time recognising the diversity of approaches that fall under its methodological banner, was formulated by The Australian National Invitational Conference on Action-Research held at Deakin University in 1981. Collectively the Conference formed the following definition of educational action-research:
"Educational action-research is a term used to describe a family of activities in curriculum development, professional development, school improvement programmes, and systems planning and policy development. These activities have in common the identification of strategies of planned action which are implemented, and then systematically submitted to observation, reflection and change. Participants in the action being considered are intricately involved with all of these activities." (ERDC 1981)
This definition gives proper weight to the need for planned action with systematic evaluation leading to change. Even more importantly, it makes explicit the importance of "the identification of strategies", thus incorporating the concept of 'strategic action'.
Essentially, action-research consists of a number of phases viz.:
Observing
Reflecting on this observation
Planning either a change of practice or a gathering of further data
Acting (by making the change or gathering the data)
Observing the effects of the change (or looking at the data)
Reflecting on this observation (or analysing the data)
Planning a further change or data gathering process
Acting to make the change or gather the data
Observing the results
Etc.
This process is known as the 'action-research spiral' and is often depicted in diagrammatic form.
Diagram 1: The action-research spiral
However, real life research projects "often do not fit neatly into cycle of planning, action, observation and reflection. It is perfectly legitimate to follow a somewhat disjointed process if circumstances dictate". (Kember, D & Kelly, M: 1993 p 7)
Action-research projects, then, are likely to be more 'messy,' in practice, than a straightforward description of the action-research spiral would suggest. However, describing each phase separately makes it easier to understand.
References:
Carr, W & Kemmis, S 1986 Becoming Critical The Falmer Press, London.
ERDC (Educational Research and Development Council) 1981 Joint Statement of the Australian National Invitational Conference on Action Research held at Deakin University cited in Trip, D H Socially Critical Action Research Theory Into Practice Volume XXIX No.3 Summer 1990 Ohio State University, Columbus 158 - 166.
Kember,D & Kelly, M 1993 Improving Teaching Through Action Research HERDSA Campbelltown NSW
McMahon T 1999 Is Reflective Practice Synonymous with Action Research Educational Action Research 7.1 163 - 168.
Oberg, A & McCutcheon, G 1987 Teachers' Experience Doing Action Research Peabody Journal of Education 64 (2) 20-22.
The Overview of Action Research
Action Research (AR) is an idea, which you can apply to improve your own teaching practice, as well as other facets of academic work such as curriculum design and course evaluation.
By making your teaching practice the subject of your research you can critically examine and modify it. The main difference between teaching per se and action research on teaching, is that you will need to adopt a more systematic approach to making observations and keeping records than may presently be the case. At various stages in a project, your findings can be communicated to colleagues through seminars, conferences and journal publications.
There is quite a large literature on action research including its theoretical underpinnings and historical development. Since the aim of this website is to assist you in getting started with an action research project, only a brief outline of the main theoretical ideas is presented here. Those of you who wish to pursue the theory further will find useful sources in the action research resources.
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What is Action Research?
Basically it is an approach to improve your own teaching practice. You start with a problem you encounter in your teaching practice. It could be a concern that students do not spend enough effort in reviewing course materials; or they have great difficulty learning a particular topic in the course. Faced with the problem, the action researcher will go through a series of phases (reflect, plan, action, observe) called the Action Research Cycle to systematically tackle the problem. In practice, things rarely go perfectly according to plan first time round. Usually you discover ways to improve your action plan in light of your experience and feedback from the students. One cycle of planning, acting, observing and reflecting, therefore usually leads to another, in which you incorporate improvements suggested by the initial cycle. Projects often do not fit neatly into a cycle of planning, action, observation and reflection. It is perfectly legitimate to follow a somewhat disjointed process if circumstances dictate
The Action Research Cycles
Why should I get involved in action research?Built into action research is the proviso that, if as a teacher I am dissatisfied with what is already going on, I will have the confidence and resolution to attempt to change it. I will not be content with the status quo... Jean McNiff, Action Research, Principles and Practice, McNiff,1988, 50Acquiescence is not a characteristic of an action researcher. He is resourceful, committed, tenacious, and above all, curious. He will not be satisfied with a given system if he sees elements of the system as unsatisfactory. He will seek to change it. In doing so, he refuses to be a servant, but becomes an acting agent. He rises above the role of a skilled technician and becomes an educator. Jean McNiff, Action Research, Principles and Practice, McNiff,1988, 50...my own work within the politics of educational knowledge would suggest that it is largely up to teachers to gain the initiative within the academic community by strengthening the explanatory power of their accounts of professional practice.Jack Whitehead, Action Research, Principles and Practice, McNiff,1988
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AcknowledgementSpecial thanks to Dr. David Kember of the Educational Development Unit, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, formerly coordinator of the Action Learning Project; and Dr. Mavis Kelly, one of the authors of the booklet Improving the Quality of Teaching through Action Learning Projects, for providing CELT with a lot of useful materials on this site.
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Sharing your Action Research with Others
The purpose of the final report is to share ideas with others in your community of practice who would value the knowledge you gained. How are you going to share it with them? Action Researchers will need to decide what to write and to whom to write.
One of the strongest acts of leadership can be the quiet act of writing—of sharing what you have learned. Writing helps you to reach people that you will never see. It is a very powerful act. Through writing, you make a contribution to the body of knowledge that exists beyond yourself.
A Written Report
This is the template that we recommend to students at Pepperdine University for their Master of Arts Thesis, but there are multiple ways to organize an action research report.
INTRODUCTION: The significance of the problem I am addressing. The reader needs to be invited to think about the problem at the widest level. This should answer the question --Why should a read this, why should I care about this study? This is not about the context but about the problem and how it is linked to your visions for a different future.
THE CONTEXT :
WORK/COMMUNITY CONTEXT:Once you have a posed a problem at a general level, you will need to provide the context of your work. There are two parts to this. One if the local context (this section) and the other is the professional context (review of literature). These can come in whatever order makes sense to you.In your local context, you may want to describe your membership/position in your community of practice and how you worked in this setting to address the problem you have established.
LITERATURE REVIEWThe literature is other way to set the context for your work. What have others done that inform my understanding of the problem? What theories or predictions about outcomes come from past research? How is what you plan to do similar or different from what others have tried?
THE RESEARCH
RESEARCH QUESTION:The research question sets up your inquiry. The overall question is the overarching problem selected. The cycles questions are sub questions that helped address this larger issue in different ways.
REPORT OF CYCLES OF RESEARCHAction research takes place in cycles. Each cycles is a discrete experiment--taking action as a way of studying change. Your report needs to include --either a detailed report for each cycle as follows or a report of the cycles in a more summary format.
CYCLE RESEARCH QUESTION: This question needs to contain two very important parts. The first part clearly states what you will do in very specific language. The second part shares your best guess at an outcome. (The reactions of others that you expect to result from your action.) Your action research is a design experiment. You are designing with an eye toward deeper understanding of design action.
EVIDENCE USED TO EVALUATE THE ACTION: What evidence will you collect to tell you how others respond to your action? Where will you look to give you direct or indirect evidence of what happened?
EVALUATION: How will you/did you evaluate the outcomes of your action?.....(Indicate your plans for your analysis in a paragraph or two).
REFLECTION: Looking back on my action with the benefit of data, I now think... and if I were to do this again I would have.... The thing that worked best was... What most surprised me from the data was...
FINAL REFLECTION:
This is where the action research really takes stock of what was learned. It might be helpful to think of a reflection as a set of connections between the past, present and future. If this section is only a summary of what was happened, it will fail as a reflection. A reflection provides a deep understanding of why things happened as they did and how those outcomes help you address your overarching question. At the end of writing a good reflection, you will know more than you did when you started it. If you haven't gained some new insights about the problem and your actions to solve it, it is likely that you are only summarizing what happened. Reflection is a powerful learning experience. It is an essential part of action research.
REFERENCES
The references provide the context for your ideas. In many ways, the references indicated the community of researchers and writers that you are writing for.
Publishing on the Web in Portfolio:
An important part of the Action Research process is posting and sharing artifacts of the inquiry, so that the action researcher can continually reflect on practice and so that peers can contribute feedback and support. The Web Portfolio, then, becomes a place for both internal and external reflection.
A good action research portfolio, like a report, documents practices at each step of the inquiry. The accumulation of content provides critical mass for reflection and for recognizing change of practice. There is no perfect template for an Action Research Portfolio. One key idea, however, is to be sure to document each cycle and gather artifacts accordingly. That documentation process should utilize both descriptive and reflective writing.
The Center for Collaborative Action Research has collected Action Research Portfolios that serve as effective models. The model portfolios are categorized in two groups: School Action Research for projects that help improve instructional practices and Community Action Research for projects in University, Corporate, and other Community settings.